State Formation, Communal Killing, and Historical Silencing: A Research Note
Abstract:
The Indian military intervention in the Hyderabad State in September 1948, officially known as Operation Polo, has long been portrayed as a swift and relatively bloodless “police action.” However, subsequent academic studies and independent investigations challenge this narrative. This research note revisits the episode through a synthesis of available documentary evidence—most notably the Sunderlal Committee Report—along with contemporary records and later scholarly assessments. It argues that the incorporation of Hyderabad into the Indian Union was accompanied by large-scale violence against Muslim civilians, including mass killings, sexual violence, and systematic plunder, and that these events have largely been excluded from mainstream Indian historiography.
Introduction:
The formation of the Indian nation-state after 1947 involved a combination of negotiation and coercion. Among the princely states, Hyderabad occupies a particularly contentious position due to the scale and nature of violence associated with its annexation. While the intervention has often been justified as a necessary step to restore order and national unity, available evidence suggests that it involved grave violations of civilian life, disproportionately affecting the Muslim population of the region.
Historical Context:
Hyderabad was the largest princely state in British India, ruled by a Muslim Nizam over a predominantly non-Muslim population. Following Indian independence, the Nizam sought to retain autonomy, leading to escalating political tensions between Hyderabad and the Indian Union. On 13 September 1948, Indian armed forces launched Operation Polo, resulting in the state’s military defeat within five days.
Crucially, the most severe violence occurred after the official surrender of Hyderabad’s forces, contradicting claims that casualties were limited to military combat.
Evidence of Mass Violence:
3.1 The Sunderlal Committee Report:
In late 1948, the Government of India appointed a fact-finding committee headed by Pandit Sunderlal. Although the report was not officially published at the time, its findings later came to light. The committee estimated that between 27,000 and 40,000 Muslims were killed during and after the intervention. The report documented:
Organized killings of Muslim civilians
Mass rape of Muslim women
Looting and destruction of Muslim property
Involvement of non-state actors, often operating alongside Indian soldiers
The long-term suppression of this report indicates early attempts at controlling the historical narrative surrounding Hyderabad 1948.
3.2 Higher Estimates and Scholarly Debate:
Several historians and independent observers argue that the Sunderlal Committee’s figures may underestimate the scale of violence. Some estimates place the death toll between 100,000 and 500,000, citing unregistered rural deaths, mass graves, and the absence of comprehensive records. While precise numbers remain contested, there is broad scholarly agreement that the violence was large-scale and systematic, rather than sporadic or incidental.
Violence and State Complicity:
A central analytical challenge concerns the role of the Indian state. Evidence suggests not merely a failure to prevent violence, but in certain cases indirect acquiescence or active complicity. The blurred boundary between military operations and communal violence raises critical questions about state responsibility and situates Hyderabad 1948 within broader debates on coercive state formation.
Historiographical Silence:
Despite the scale of the violence, Operation Polo occupies a marginal place in Indian public memory and educational discourse. The prolonged classification of official documents, absence of judicial inquiries, and lack of accountability exemplify what scholars describe as selective national amnesia. This silence stands in sharp contrast to the extensive discussion of other episodes of communal violence in South Asian history.
Conclusion:
The annexation of Hyderabad was not merely an administrative or constitutional process, but a violent episode marked by extensive civilian suffering. Acknowledging the atrocities committed during and after Operation Polo is essential for an honest understanding of Indian state formation in the postcolonial period. Continued neglect of this history perpetuates historical injustice and undermines claims of a consensual and morally justified national integration.
References:
Sunderlal, P. et al. Report on the Massacre in Hyderabad State (1948), unpublished Government of India report.
Noorani, A. G. “The Destruction of Hyderabad.” Frontline, Vol. 17, No. 19 (2000).
Copland, I. The Princes of India in the Endgame of Empire, 1917–1947. Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Sherman, T. C. State Violence and Punishment in India. Routledge, 2010.
Talbot, I., & Singh, G. The Partition of India. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Engineer, A. A. Communal Violence in Post-Independence India. Orient Blackswan, 1991.